Notable Developments in Golf Course Design
By Ken Martin, Keiser University College of Golf Professor and PGA Certified Professional
Golf course design has evolved dramatically since the game’s origins, reflecting changes in technology, culture, environmental awareness, and player expectations. From rudimentary layouts carved into Scottish dunes to modern masterpieces blending aesthetics with strategy, the art and science of golf course design have shaped the sport’s identity. This article traces the notable developments in golf course design, exploring key eras, influential architects, and the forces driving innovation over centuries.
The Origins: Natural Landscapes and Links Golf (15th–18th Century)
Golf’s earliest courses emerged organically in Scotland, where the game was formalized in the 15th century. These were links courses built on coastal land with sandy soil, dunes, and natural grasses. The Old Course at St Andrews, dating back to at least 1552, exemplifies this era. Early designs were not designed in the modern sense; they were shaped by nature and communal use. Fairways followed natural contours, bunkers formed from wind or animal activity, and greens were small, uneven patches maintained by grazing sheep.
The lack of formal design did not diminish strategic depth. The Old Course’s undulated greens, blind shots, and unpredictable bounces demanded creativity and adaptability. Links courses established core golf design principles, such as working with the land, embracing natural hazards, and prioritizing playability. However, their reliance on specific coastal terrain limited their replication elsewhere.
The 19th Century: Formalization and Expansion
As golf spread beyond Scotland in the 19th century, course design became more deliberate. The industrial revolution enabled better land management, and the game’s growing popularity demanded new venues. Designers like Old Tom Morris, a St Andrews native, began shaping courses with intention. Morris, active from the 1850s, designed or modified courses like Prestwick, Muirfield, and Royal Dornoch. His work emphasized strategic bunkering and green complexes, introducing features like the Sahara bunker at Prestwick, which challenged players’ decision-making before playing over the Alps on the 17th hole.
This period also saw golf’s export to England and beyond—inland courses, lacking the natural drama of linksland, required innovation. Designers created challenges by using artificial mounding, tree planting, and water features. Establishing standardized rules, like the 18-hole format inspired by St Andrews, further shaped design. By the late 1800s, courses like Royal Liverpool (Hoylake) introduced routing that balanced variety and fairness, setting a template for modern layouts.
The Golden Age of Golf Design (1900–1930)
The early 20th century marked the Golden Age of golf course design, driven by economic prosperity, transatlantic golf’s rise, and visionary designers. This era produced many of the world’s most revered courses, blending artistry, strategy, and natural beauty. Canadian-born Charles Blair (C. B.) Macdonald built the first 18-hole course in America and was the first to coin the term golf architect while working with Seth Raynor, a civil engineer. Architects like Donald Ross, A.W. Tillinghast, and Alister MacKenzie defined the period in the United States. Ross, a Scottish immigrant, designed over 400 courses, including Pinehurst No. 2 (1907).
His minimalist approach emphasized natural contours, with subtle greens and bunkers that rewarded precision. Tillinghast’s Winged Foot and Bethpage Black (both 1920s) introduced bold, dramatic features like deep bunkers and elevated greens, testing the era’s improving equipment and player skill.
English architect MacKenzie brought a philosophical approach, advocating for courses that looked natural yet offered endless strategic options. His masterpieces, Augusta National (1933, co-designed with Bobby Jones) and Cypress Point (1928, hired by Marion Hollins after Raynor’s untimely death), showcased seamless integration with the landscape, with holes like Augusta’s 13th offering multiple risk-reward paths. MacKenzie’s Golf Architecture (1920), a design treatise, emphasized blending artificial features with natural surroundings, a principle still influential today. In Britain, architects like Harry Colt refined inland design.
Colt’s work at Sunningdale and Wentworth (both 1910s–1920s) utilized the heathland terrain to create links-like challenges, featuring heather and strategic bunkering. The Golden Age also experienced technological advances, such as improved grass varieties and irrigation, which enabled architects to control turf conditions and create faster, firmer playing surfaces.
Mid-20th Century: Post-War Expansion and Standardization (1930–1970)
The Great Depression and World War II slowed golf course construction, but the post-war boom reignited development. Suburban growth and increased leisure time fueled demand for public and resort courses, particularly in the U.S. Architects like Robert Trent Jones Sr. dominated this era, designing courses that catered to a broader audience while accommodating advancing technology, such as steel-shafted clubs and improved golf balls.
Jones’s designs, such as Spyglass Hill (1966) and the renovated Oakland Hills (1951), introduced longer holes, larger greens, and water features as strategic elements. His hard par, easy bogey philosophy made courses challenging for professionals yet forgiving for amateurs. However, critics argued his formulaic approach—long tees, fairway bunkers, and greenside water—lacked the nuance of Golden Age designs.
This period also saw the rise of resort courses such as Bay Hill Club & Lodge (1961), Sea Pines Resort (1962), Trump National Doral Miami (1962), Shanty Creek (1963), Mauna Kea Beach Hotel (1964), Sunriver Resort (1969), and Turtle Bay Resort (1972). Pebble Beach was upgraded during this time, and new destinations emerged in Hawaii and the Caribbean. Television’s influence, with events like the Masters showcasing Augusta’s beauty in color for the first time in 1967, pushed designers to prioritize aesthetics alongside playability. Environmental concerns were minimal, and heavy earthmoving became common, sometimes resulting in unnatural-looking courses relative to their surroundings.
The Modern Era: Technology and Environmental Awareness (1970–2000)
The late 20th century brought significant shifts in golf course design, driven by technological advances and growing environmental consciousness. Architects like Pete Dye, Tom Fazio, and Jack Nicklaus shaped this era, each bringing distinct approaches. Pete Dye’s TPC Sawgrass (1980), home of the Players Championship, redefined modern design with its stadium golf concept. The par-3 17th, with its island green, became iconic for its psychological challenge. Dye’s use of waste bunkers, railroad ties, and dramatic mounding pushed boundaries, though some criticized his courses as overly punitive.
Fazio, known for lush, visually stunning courses like Shadow Creek (1990), leveraged advanced construction techniques to transform unpromising sites into golfing paradises. His work prioritized player experience, with forgiving fairways and scenic beauty, but often at high financial and environmental costs. Nicklaus, transitioning from player to designer, focused on strategic depth and tournament play. His Muirfield Village (1974) balanced challenge with fairness, hosting the Memorial Tournament. Nicklaus’s global projects, like Gleneagles in Scotland, spread American-style design worldwide.
Environmental concerns gained traction in the 1980s and 1990s. Courses like Bandon Dunes (1999), designed by David McLay Kidd, embraced minimalism, using natural landscapes to reduce water and chemical use. This marked a return to links-inspired design, prioritizing sustainability and environmental harmony.
The Contemporary Era: Sustainability and Minimalism (2000–Present)
Since 2000, golf course design has grappled with economic challenges, climate change, and changing player demographics. The 2008 financial crisis slowed new construction, shifting focus to renovations and sustainable practices. Architects like Tom Doak, Bill Coore, and Ben Crenshaw have led a minimalist renaissance, echoing Golden Age principles. Doak’s Pacific Dunes (2001) and Coore-Crenshaw’s Sand Hills (1995) exemplify this trend, using natural topography to create strategic, low-maintenance courses. These designs prioritize firm and fast conditions, reducing irrigation and chemical inputs. The rise of short courses, like The Cradle at Pinehurst (2017), reflects demand for accessible, time-efficient golf.
Technology has also transformed design. Drones and GPS mapping enable precise land analysis, while data analytics inform bunker placement and green contours. Courses like Streamsong in central Florida (the Red Course by Doak, the Blue Course by Coore-Crenshaw, and the Black Course by Hanse) use reclaimed industrial sites, showcasing how design can repurpose degraded land. Inclusivity is another focus. Architects are designing courses with multiple tees to accommodate diverse skill levels, and facilities like Topgolf and urban golf venues are broadening the sport’s appeal. Renovations of historic courses, such as Gil Hanse’s work on Merion (2010s), balance preservation with modern playability.
Global Trends and Future Directions
Golf’s globalization has diversified course design. In Asia, courses like Mission Hills in China blend Western influences with local landscapes. In the Middle East, desert golf, like Dubai’s Emirates Golf Club, uses advanced irrigation to create oases. These projects highlight the tension between golf’s expansion and environmental limits. Looking ahead, the climate will continue to influence design. Drought-resistant grasses, water recycling, and smaller footprints are becoming standard. Virtual reality and simulators may influence design by enabling players to experience courses digitally, potentially reducing the need for sprawling layouts.
Conclusion
Golf course design has come full circle, from the natural links of St Andrews to minimalist modern layouts that echo their spirit. Each era – formalization, the Golden Age, post-war expansion, and contemporary minimalism – has left its mark, driven by architects who balanced strategy, beauty, and the land itself. As golf faces new challenges, from sustainability to inclusivity, the art of course design remains a dynamic reflection of the game’s enduring appeal. The next chapter will likely blend technology, environmental stewardship, and creativity to ensure golf courses remain both challenging and cherished.
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